Continuous glucose monitoring for the routine care of type 2 diabetes mellitus.

Although continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) devices are now considered the standard of care for people with type 1 diabetes mellitus, the uptake among people with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) has been slower and is focused on those receiving intensive insulin therapy. However, increasing evidence now supports the inclusion of CGM in the routine care of people with T2DM who are on basal insulin-only regimens or are managed with other medications. Expanding CGM to these groups could minimize hypoglycaemia while allowing efficient adaptation and escalation of therapies. Increasing evidence from randomized controlled trials and observational studies indicates that CGM is of clinical value in people with T2DM on non-intensive treatment regimens. If further studies confirm this finding, CGM could soon become a part of routine care for T2DM. In this Perspective we explore the potential benefits of widening the application of CGM in T2DM, along with the challenges that must be overcome for the evidence-based benefits of this technology to be delivered for all people with T2DM.

Disparities in prevalence and treatment of diabetes, cardiovascular and chronic kidney diseases - Recommendations from the taskforce of the guideline workshop.

There is a mounting clinical, psychosocial, and socioeconomic burden worldwide as the prevalence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and chronic kidney disease (CKD) continues to rise. Despite the introduction of therapeutic interventions with demonstrated efficacy to prevent the development or progression of these common chronic diseases, many individuals have limited access to these innovations due to their race/ethnicity, and/or socioeconomic status (SES). However, practical guidance to providers and healthcare systems for addressing these disparities is often lacking. In this article, we review the prevalence and impact of healthcare disparities derived from the above-mentioned chronic conditions and present broad-based recommendations for improving access to quality care and health outcomes within the most vulnerable populations.

Effect of antioxidant-rich kindergarten meals on oxidative stress biomarkers in healthy 5-6-year-old children: a randomized controlled trial.

As children spend up to 9 h a day in kindergarten, the main purpose of our study was to evaluate the effect of antioxidant-rich kindergarten meals on oxidative stress biomarkers (OSBs) in healthy children. In the randomized control trial with a follow-up, healthy 5-6-year-old children from six kindergartens were randomly divided into a prototype group (PG, n = 40) and a control group (CG, n = 17). PG followed a 2-week antioxidant-rich kindergarten meal plan (breakfast, lunch, and two snacks), and CG followed their standard kindergarten meal plans. Outside the kindergartens, participants ate as usual. We used a consecutive 7-day dietary record inside and outside the kindergarten and the national dietary assessment tool OPEN to assess the total dietary antioxidant capacity (dTAC) of the consumed foods. Malondialdehyde (MDA), 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), and four F2-isoprostane were measured in fasting urine on days 1 and 15. We also measured total antioxidant power (PAT) and hydroperoxides (d-ROMs) in fasting serum on day 15 and obtained the value of the oxidative stress index (OSI). We used a Welch two-sample t-test and multiple regression analysis to compare the prototype and control groups and a nonparametric Wilcoxon signed rank exact test to compare pre- and post-intervention results in urine. Antioxidant-rich kindergarten meals contributed to a significantly (p < 0.05) higher intake of dTAC in PG participants compared to standard meals in CG participants (8.6 vs. 2.8 mmol/day). We detected a negative correlation between dTAC intake and d-ROMs and between dTAC intake and OSI (r = - 0.29, p = 0.043 and r = - 0.31, p = 0.032, respectively). A significant decrease in urinary 8-iso-15-prostaglandin-F-2 alpha was detected in PG participants between days 1 and 15; however, no other intra-individual significant differences in urinary OSBs were found.  Conclusion: Antioxidant-rich food in kindergarten is warranted due to its potential health-protective effect. Additionally, we present original data on the average levels of urinary and serum OSBs in healthy 5-6-year-old children.  Trial registration: The study was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov, on February 5, 2020 ( https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04252105 ). What is Known: • Kindergartens are recognized as promising environments for public health measures. • A diet rich in antioxidants can reduce OSBs and, consequently, the risk of developing NCDs. What is New: • Antioxidant-rich kindergarten diet can ensure a protective intake of dTAC in children. • Original data on serum oxidative stress biomarkers (d-ROMs, PAT, and OSI) and urinary oxidative stress biomarkers (MDA, 8-OHdG, and F2 isoprostanes) in healthy 5-6-year-old children.

The INNODIA Type 1 Diabetes Natural History Study: a European cohort of newly diagnosed children, adolescents and adults.

AIMS/HYPOTHESIS: Type 1 diabetes is an heterogenous condition. Characterising factors explaining differences in an individual's clinical course and treatment response will have important clinical and research implications. Our aim was to explore type 1 diabetes heterogeneity, as assessed by clinical characteristics, autoantibodies, beta cell function and glycaemic outcomes, during the first 12 months from diagnosis, and how it relates to age at diagnosis. METHODS: Data were collected from the large INNODIA cohort of individuals (aged 1.0-45.0 years) newly diagnosed with type 1 diabetes, followed 3 monthly, to assess clinical characteristics, C-peptide, HbA1c and diabetes-associated antibodies, and their changes, during the first 12 months from diagnosis, across three age groups: <10 years; 10-17 years; and ≥18 years. RESULTS: The study population included 649 individuals (57.3% male; age 12.1±8.3 years), 96.9% of whom were positive for one or more diabetes-related antibodies. Baseline (IQR) fasting C-peptide was 242.0 (139.0-382.0) pmol/l (AUC 749.3 [466.2-1106.1] pmol/l × min), with levels increasing with age (p<0.001). Over time, C-peptide remained lower in participants aged <10 years but it declined in all age groups. In parallel, glucose levels progressively increased. Lower baseline fasting C-peptide, BMI SD score and presence of diabetic ketoacidosis at diagnosis were associated with lower stimulated C-peptide over time. HbA1c decreased during the first 3 months (p<0.001), whereas insulin requirement increased from 3 months post diagnosis (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS/INTERPRETATION: In this large cohort with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes, we identified age-related differences in clinical and biochemical variables. Of note, C-peptide was lower in younger children but there were no main age differences in its rate of decline.

International Diabetes Federation Position Statement on the 1-hour post-load plasma glucose for the diagnosis of intermediate hyperglycaemia and type 2 diabetes.

Many individuals with intermediate hyperglycaemia (IH), including impaired fasting glycaemia (IFG) and impaired glucose tolerance (IGT), as presently defined, will progress to type 2 diabetes (T2D). There is confirmatory evidence that T2D can be prevented by lifestyle modification and/or medications, in people with IGT diagnosed by 2-h plasma glucose (PG) during a 75-gram oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). Over the last 40 years, a wealth of epidemiological data has confirmed the superior value of 1-h plasma glucose (PG) over fasting PG (FPG), glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) and 2-h PG in populations of different ethnicity, sex and age in predicting diabetes and associated complications including death. Given the relentlessly rising prevalence of diabetes, a more sensitive, practical method is needed to detect people with IH and T2D for early prevention or treatment in the often lengthy trajectory to T2D and its complications. The International Diabetes Federation (IDF) Position Statement reviews findings that the 1-h post-load PG ≥ 155 mg/dL (8.6 mmol/L) in people with normal glucose tolerance (NGT) during an OGTT is highly predictive for detecting progression to T2D, micro- and macrovascular complications, obstructive sleep apnoea, cystic fibrosis-related diabetes mellitus, metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease, and mortality in individuals with risk factors. The 1-h PG of 209 mg/dL (11.6 mmol/L) is also diagnostic of T2D. Importantly, the 1-h PG cut points for diagnosing IH and T2D can be detected earlier than the recommended 2-h PG thresholds. Taken together, the 1-h PG provides an opportunity to avoid misclassification of glycaemic status if FPG or HbA1c alone are used. The 1-h PG also allows early detection of high-risk people for intervention to prevent progression to T2D which will benefit the sizeable and growing population of individuals at increased risk of T2D. Using a 1-h OGTT, subsequent to screening with a non-laboratory diabetes risk tool, and intervening early will favourably impact the global diabetes epidemic. Health services should consider developing a policy for screening for IH based on local human and technical resources. People with a 1-h PG ≥ 155 mg/dL (8.6 mmol/L) are considered to have IH and should be prescribed lifestyle intervention and referred to a diabetes prevention program. People with a 1-h PG ≥ 209 mg/dL (11.6 mmol/L) are considered to have T2D and should have a repeat test to confirm the diagnosis of T2D and then referred for further evaluation and treatment. The substantive data presented in the Position Statement provides strong evidence for redefining current diagnostic criteria for IH and T2D by adding the 1-h PG.

CVOT Summit Report 2023: new cardiovascular, kidney, and metabolic outcomes.

The 9th Cardiovascular Outcome Trial (CVOT) Summit: Congress on Cardiovascular, Kidney, and Metabolic Outcomes was held virtually on November 30-December 1, 2023. This reference congress served as a platform for in-depth discussions and exchange on recently completed outcomes trials including dapagliflozin (DAPA-MI), semaglutide (SELECT and STEP-HFpEF) and bempedoic acid (CLEAR Outcomes), and the advances they represent in reducing the risk of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE), improving metabolic outcomes, and treating obesity-related heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). A broad audience of endocrinologists, diabetologists, cardiologists, nephrologists and primary care physicians participated in online discussions on guideline updates for the management of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in diabetes, heart failure (HF) and chronic kidney disease (CKD); advances in the management of type 1 diabetes (T1D) and its comorbidities; advances in the management of CKD with SGLT2 inhibitors and non-steroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (nsMRAs); and advances in the treatment of obesity with GLP-1 and dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor agonists. The association of diabetes and obesity with nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH; metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis, MASH) and cancer and possible treatments for these complications were also explored. It is generally assumed that treatment of chronic diseases is equally effective for all patients. However, as discussed at the Summit, this assumption may not be true. Therefore, it is important to enroll patients from diverse racial and ethnic groups in clinical trials and to analyze patient-reported outcomes to assess treatment efficacy, and to develop innovative approaches to tailor medications to those who benefit most with minimal side effects. Other keys to a successful management of diabetes and comorbidities, including dementia, entail the use of continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) technology and the implementation of appropriate patient-physician communication strategies. The 10th Cardiovascular Outcome Trial Summit will be held virtually on December 5-6, 2024 ( http://www.cvot.org ).

Continuous Glucose Monitoring-Based Metrics and Hypoglycemia Duration in Insulin-Experienced Individuals With Long-standing Type 2 Diabetes Switched From a Daily Basal Insulin to Once-Weekly Insulin Icodec: Post Hoc Analysis of ONWARDS 2 and ONWARDS 4.

OBJECTIVE: This post hoc analysis assessed continuous glucose monitoring (CGM)-based metrics and hypoglycemia duration with once-weekly insulin icodec versus once-daily basal insulin analogs in insulin-experienced individuals with long-standing type 2 diabetes from two 26-week phase 3a trials (ONWARDS 2 and ONWARDS 4). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: Time in range (TIR) (3.9-10.0 mmol/L), time above range (TAR) (>10.0 mmol/L), and time below range (TBR) (<3.9 mmol/L and <3.0 mmol/L) were assessed during three CGM time periods (switch [weeks 0-4], end of treatment [weeks 22-26], and follow-up [weeks 27-31]) for icodec versus comparators (ONWARDS 2, insulin degludec [basal regimen]; ONWARDS 4, insulin glargine U100 [basal-bolus regimen]) using double-blind CGM data. CGM-derived hypoglycemic episode duration (<3.9 mmol/L) was assessed. RESULTS: In both trials, there were no statistically significant differences in TIR, TAR, or TBR (<3.0 mmol/L) for icodec versus comparators across all time periods. In the end-of-treatment period, mean TIR was 63.1% (icodec) vs. 59.5% (degludec) in ONWARDS 2 and 66.9% (icodec) vs. 66.4% (glargine U100) in ONWARDS 4. Mean TBR <3.9 mmol/L and <3.0 mmol/L remained within recommended targets (<4% and <1%, respectively) across time periods and treatment arms. Hypoglycemic episode duration (<3.9 mmol/L) was comparable across time periods and treatment arms (median duration ≤40 min). CONCLUSIONS: In insulin-experienced participants with long-standing type 2 diabetes, CGM-based TIR, TAR, and CGM-derived hypoglycemia duration (<3.9 mmol/L) were comparable for icodec and once-daily basal insulin analogs during all time periods. TBR remained within recommended targets.

Food Behaviour and Metabolic Characteristics of Children and Adolescents with Type 1 Diabetes: Relationship to Glycaemic Control.

Diet is an essential element of treating and managing type 1 diabetes (T1D). However, limited research has examined food behaviour in children and adolescents with T1D and their relationship to glycaemic control. This study evaluated food behaviour, metabolic characteristics and their impact on the glycaemic control of children and adolescents with T1D. Two hundred and fifty-eight participants with T1D (6-15 years, duration of diabetes >1 year) were recruited. Demographic, anthropometric and clinical data were collected. Questionnaires on food neophobia and food preferences were administered. The Child Food Questionnaire (CFQ) also assessed parental feeding practices. An analysis of food behaviour showed that food neophobia was inversely associated with the liking of vegetables, fruits, fish, sweets and carbohydrates. Moreover, by analysing parental feeding practices, an inverse association of "Pressure to eat", "Monitoring" and "Restriction" with liking for vegetables and carbohydrates emerged. Considering glycaemic control, increased food neophobia and the parent practices "Restriction", "Pressure to eat" and "Concern about weight" were found in participants with glycated haemoglobin (HbA1c) values >8.5%. Finally, higher body mass index (BMI) and total cholesterol values were observed in subjects with HbA1c values >8.5%. These findings contribute to a better understanding of eating behaviour, metabolic status and their complex relationship with glycaemic control.

Future of Time-in-Range Goals in the Era of Advanced Hybrid Closed-Loop Automated Insulin Delivery Systems.

The concept of maintaining blood glucose levels within the 70-180 mg/dL range, known as time-in-range, has raised questions regarding its representation of true physiological euglycemia. Some have speculated that focusing on the time spent within the 70-140 mg/dL range, introduced as time in tight range (TITR) through the International Consensus statement, could serve as a more precise metric for assessing normoglycemia in individuals with type 1 diabetes. This article delves into the current status of TITR as an emerging marker and explores how advanced hybrid closed-loop systems may offer a promising avenue for achieving this higher level of glycemic control.

Assisting the implementation of screening for type 1 diabetes by using artificial intelligence on publicly available data.

The type 1 diabetes community is coalescing around the benefits and advantages of early screening for disease risk. To be accepted by healthcare providers, regulatory authorities and payers, screening programmes need to show that the testing variables allow accurate risk prediction and that individualised risk-informed monitoring plans are established, as well as operational feasibility, cost-effectiveness and acceptance at population level. Artificial intelligence (AI) has the potential to contribute to solving these issues, starting with the identification and stratification of at-risk individuals. ASSET (AI for Sustainable Prevention of Autoimmunity in the Society; www.asset.healthcare ) is a public/private consortium that was established to contribute to research around screening for type 1 diabetes and particularly to how AI can drive the implementation of a precision medicine approach to disease prevention. ASSET will additionally focus on issues pertaining to operational implementation of screening. The authors of this article, researchers and clinicians active in the field of type 1 diabetes, met in an open forum to independently debate key issues around screening for type 1 diabetes and to advise ASSET. The potential use of AI in the analysis of longitudinal data from observational cohort studies to inform the design of improved, more individualised screening programmes was also discussed. A key issue was whether AI would allow the research community and industry to capitalise on large publicly available data repositories to design screening programmes that allow the early detection of individuals at high risk and enable clinical evaluation of preventive therapies. Overall, AI has the potential to revolutionise type 1 diabetes screening, in particular to help identify individuals who are at increased risk of disease and aid in the design of appropriate follow-up plans. We hope that this initiative will stimulate further research on this very timely topic.

Safety, Metabolic and Psychological Outcomes of Medtronic MiniMed 780G™ in Children, Adolescents and Young Adults: A Systematic Review.

The MiniMed™ 780G is a second-generation automated insulin delivery system that implements a modified proportional-integral-derivative algorithm with some features of an MD-Logic artificial pancreas algorithm. The system may deliver automatic correction boluses up to every 5 min, and it allows the user to choose between three glucose target setpoints (100, 110 and 120 mg/dL). We aimed to review the current evidence on this device in children, adolescents, and young adults living with type 1 diabetes. We screened 783 papers, but only 31 manuscripts were included in this review. Data on metabolic outcomes show that this system is safe as regards severe hypoglycaemia and diabetic ketoacidosis. The glycated haemoglobin may drop to levels about 7%, with CGM reports showing a time in range of 75-80%. The time above range and the time below range are within the recommended target in most of the subjects. Few studies evaluated the psychological outcomes. This system seems to be more effective than the first-generation automated insulin delivery systems. The MiniMed™ 780G has been associated with an improvement in sleep quality in subjects living with diabetes and their caregivers, along with an improvement in treatment satisfaction. Psychological distress is as reduced as the glucose control is improved. We also discuss some case reports describing particular situations in clinical practice. Finally, we think that data show that this system is a further step towards the improvement of the treatment of diabetes as concerns both metabolic and psychological outcomes.

Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning for Improving Glycemic Control in Diabetes: Best Practices, Pitfalls, and Opportunities.

OBJECTIVE: Artificial intelligence and machine learning are transforming many fields including medicine. In diabetes, robust biosensing technologies and automated insulin delivery therapies have created a substantial opportunity to improve health. While the number of manuscripts addressing the topic of applying machine learning to diabetes has grown in recent years, there has been a lack of consistency in the methods, metrics, and data used to train and evaluate these algorithms. This manuscript provides consensus guidelines for machine learning practitioners in the field of diabetes, including best practice recommended approaches and warnings about pitfalls to avoid. METHODS: Algorithmic approaches are reviewed and benefits of different algorithms are discussed including importance of clinical accuracy, explainability, interpretability, and personalization. We review the most common features used in machine learning applications in diabetes glucose control and provide an open-source library of functions for calculating features, as well as a framework for specifying data sets using data sheets. A review of current data sets available for training algorithms is provided as well as an online repository of data sources. SIGNIFICANCE: These consensus guidelines are designed to improve performance and translatability of new machine learning algorithms developed in the field of diabetes for engineers and data scientists.

Time in Tight Glucose Range in Type 1 Diabetes: Predictive Factors and Achievable Targets in Real-World Users of the MiniMed 780G System.

OBJECTIVE: We studied time in tight range (TITR) (70-140 mg/dL) in real-world users of the MiniMed 780G system (MM780G). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: CareLink Personal data were extracted (August 2020 to December 2022) to examine TITR and its relationship with time in range (TIR; 70-180 mg/dL), factors predicting higher TITR, and which TITR target is a reasonable treatment goal. RESULTS: The 13,461 users (3,762 age ≤15 years and 9,699 age >15 years) showed an average TITR of 48.9% in those age ≤15 years and 48.8% in the older group (vs. TIR 71.2% and 73.9%, respectively). Consistent use of a glucose target (GT) of 100 mg/dL and active insulin time (AIT) of 2 h were the most relevant factors predicting higher TITR (P < 0.0001). In users consistently applying these optimal settings, TITR was 56.7% in those age ≤15 years and 57.0% in the older group, and the relative impact of these settings on TITR was 60% and 86% greater than that on TIR, respectively. TITRs of ∼45% (age ≤15 years 46.3% and older group 45.4%), ∼50% (50.7% and 50.7%) and ∼55% (56.4% and 58.0%) were best associated with glucose management indicators <7.0%, <6.8%, and <6.5%, respectively. TITRs of >45%, >50%, and >55% were achieved in 91%, 74%, and 55% of those age ≤15 years and 93%, 81%, and 57% of older group users, respectively, at optimal settings. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that 1) mean TIR is high with a high mean TITR in MM780G users (>48%), 2) consistent use of optimal GT/AIT improves TITR (>56%), 3) the impact of these settings on TITR is larger than on TIR, and 4) a TITR target >50% is our suggested treatment goal.

(Hybrid) Closed-Loop Systems: From Announced to Unannounced Exercise.

Physical activity and exercise have many beneficial effects on general and type 1 diabetes (T1D) specific health and are recommended for individuals with T1D. Despite these health benefits, many people with T1D still avoid exercise since glycemic management during physical activity poses substantial glycemic and psychological challenges - which hold particularly true for unannounced exercise when using an AID system. Automated insulin delivery (AID) systems have demonstrated their efficacy in improving overall glycemia and in managing announced exercise in numerous studies. They are proven to increase time in range (70-180 mg/dL) and can especially counteract nocturnal hypoglycemia, even when evening exercise was performed. AID-systems consist of a pump administering insulin as well as a CGM sensor (plus transmitter), both communicating with a control algorithm integrated into a device (insulin pump, mobile phone/smart watch). Nevertheless, without manual pre-exercise adaptions, these systems still face a significant challenge around physical activity. Automatically adapting to the rapidly changing insulin requirements during unannounced exercise and physical activity is still the Achilles' heel of current AID systems. There is an urgent need for improving current AID-systems to safely and automatically maintain glucose management without causing derailments - so that going forward, exercise announcements will not be necessary in the future. Therefore, this narrative literature review aimed to discuss technological strategies to how current AID-systems can be improved in the future and become more proficient in overcoming the hurdle of unannounced exercise. For this purpose, the current state-of-the-art therapy recommendations for AID and exercise as well as novel research approaches are presented along with potential future solutions - in order to rectify their deficiencies in the endeavor to achieve fully automated AID-systems even around unannounced exercise.

Case Report: Multiple prolactinomas in a young man with Kallmann syndrome and familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia.

Introduction: The occurrence of prolactinomas in sex hormone treated patients with central hypogonadism is extremely rare. Case presentation: We present a Caucasian male patient who was diagnosed with Kallmann syndrome (KS) at age 15 years. Testosterone treatment was started. At age 26 the patient presented with mild headache. MRI revealed two separate pituitary adenomas along with the absence of the olfactory bulbs. Given the presence of marked hyperprolactinemia (17x upper limit of the reference range) the diagnosis prolactinoma was made and treatment with cabergoline was started which resulted in a complete biochemical response and in marked reduction of both adenomas in size. Hypogonadism persisted and testosterone replacement therapy was continued. Genetic testing of genes associated with pituitary tumors, Kallmann syndrome and idiopathic hypogonadotropic hypogonadism was negative. Mild concomitant hypercalcemia in accordance with familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia (FHH) prompted mutation analysis of the calcium receptor (CASR) gene which yielded a pathogenic inactivating variant. Discussion/conclusion: The presence of two separate prolactinomas in a patient with KS has not yet been reported in the literature. The effect of sex hormone treatment of KS patients on the possible development of prolactinoma is unknown at present. The occurance of multiple prolactinomas in our patient suggests increased susceptibility. Although CaSR is expressed in GnRH neurons in mouse brain and CaSR deficient mice have a reduced hypothalamic GnRH neuronal population, the relevance of the CASR gene variant in our patient for the KS phenotype is unclear at present.

The Role of Ultra-Rapid-Acting Insulin Analogs in Diabetes: An Expert Consensus.

Ultra-rapid-acting insulin analogs (URAA) are a further development and refinement of rapid-acting insulin analogs. Because of their adapted formulation, URAA provide an even faster pharmacokinetics and thus an accelerated onset of insulin action than conventional rapid-acting insulin analogs, allowing for a more physiologic delivery of exogenously applied insulin. Clinical trials have confirmed the superiority of URAA in controlling postprandial glucose excursions, with a safety profile that is comparable to the rapid-acting insulins. Consequently, many individuals with diabetes mellitus may benefit from URAA in terms of prandial glycemic control. Unfortunately, there are only few available recommendations from authoritative sources for use of URAA in clinical practice. Therefore, this expert consensus report aims to define populations of people with diabetes mellitus for whom URAA may be beneficial and to provide health care professionals with concrete, practical recommendations on how best to use URAA in this context.

Attachment in close relationships and glycemic outcomes in children with type 1 diabetes.

BACKGROUND: Our aim was to determine whether child attachment to parents, parent attachment style, and morning cortisol levels were related to diabetes outcomes measured by average glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), HbA1c variability over 4 years and time in range (TIR) in children with type 1 diabetes (T1D). RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS: 101 children with T1D and one of their parents were assessed at baseline for child attachment (Child Attachment Interview; CAI) and parent attachment (Relationship Structures Questionnaire; ECR-RS). Serum samples were collected for cortisol measurements before the interviews. HbA1c levels were measured during a 4-year follow-up period at regular 3-monthly visits, and data for TIR were exported from blood glucose measuring devices. Multivariate linear regression models were constructed to identify independent predictors of glycemic outcomes. RESULTS: More girls than boys exhibited secure attachment to their mothers. The results of the regression models showed that securely attached girls (CAI) had higher average HbA1c than did insecurely attached girls (B = -0.64, p = 0.03). In boys, the more insecure the parent's attachment style, the worse the child's glycemic outcome: the higher the average Hb1Ac (B = 0.51, p = 0.005), the higher the HbA1c variability (B = 0.017, p = 0.011), and the lower the TIR (B = -8.543, p = 0.002). CONCLUSIONS: Attachment in close relationships is associated with glycemic outcomes in children with T1D, and we observed significant differences between sexes. A sex- and attachment-specific approach is recommended when treating children with less favorable glycemic outcomes. Special attention and tailored support should be offered to securely attached girls in transferring responsibility for diabetes care and at least to male children of insecurely attached parents to prevent suboptimal glycemic control. Further studies in larger samples and more daily cortisol measurements may help us better understand the links between stress response, attachment and T1D.